ECONOMIC THOUGHT OF NIZAM AL-MULIK AL-TUSI
Brief Life History
Khwajah Abu Ali Hasan Ibn Ali Ishaq was a landmark figure of the history and rule of the Saljuq Turks, who established their Sultanate in the name of the caliphs of Baghdad. He is better known.in history as Nizam al-Mulk, a title of honor, conferred upon him by the founder of the Saljuq dynasty, Sultan Alp Arslan.
It was in 408 AH/IO17 AD that Nizam al-Mulk was born, in the small town of Radhkan (or Nuqan?) located in the suburb of Tus, about 50 miles to the north of Mashhad in Persia. He belonged to a family of middle-class landowners (dihqans) and in the days of the Ghaznawids, his father was appointed a tax-collector of Tus by Abu al-Fadl Sun, the governor of Khurasan.
Nizam al-Mulk had his early education in the study of Hadith and fiqh. Upon his father's desire to see him pursuing the legal profession, he was initially placed under the guidance of 'Abd al-Samad Funduraji, a profound scholar of law. He then studied with an outstanding Shafi'i 'alim known as Iman Muwaffaq of Nishapur. This would probably be the main reason for his allegiance to the Shafi'i madzhab, as apparent in his (Nizam al-Mulk's) major work, Siyasat Namah. After his studies, Nizam al-Mulk, although being a Persian, was to begin his gradual and eventual, but initially unplanned, administrative mastery of the Turkish Saljuq empire.
". ..he travelled to Bukhara and Merv, and to a number of towns in Transoxiana, most probably in search of a post, and after 441 AH /1049 AD, he went to Ghaznah, where he sought service with the Ghaznawids, thus getting an opportunity to acquaint himself with their administration. When Sultan Abd al-Rashid was murdered in 444 AH /1052 AD and the political affairs were upset, he escaped to Balkh and entered the service of Ali Ibn Shadhan, who was then the governor of that province on behalf of the Saljuq ruler Chaghari Beg Dawud. Annoyed with the habits of this man, who extorted heavy sums from him every year, he fled to Merv; there Chaghari Beg appointed him the mushir (counsellor) and the katib (secretary) of his son, Alp Arslan. It was on the advice of~li Ibn Shadhan that Alp Arslan, after his accession to the throne in 455 AH /1062 AD, raised him to the position of a Joint Minister with Amidal-Mulk Kunduri."
After the death of Kunduri, Nizam al-Mulk became a full-fledged prime IIlinister or wazir of the Saljuq empire. He held the reins of the empire during the rules of Alp Arslan and his successor-son, Malik Shah, especially during the rule of the latter who succeeded to the throne in 465 AH/I072 AD.
The period of Nizam al-Mulk's life and Prime Ministership has been, labelled as a period of change. "... (it was a period of) a great conflict between the accepted ideas of Islamic policy and the Perso-Turkish notions which were slowly creeping into the body-politic of the Caliphate. The Islamic principle of political conduct was that the ruler should not be a super-legal person free to act as he willed, but that he should definitely and without doubt be under the Divine Law as laid down by the Apostle of Islam. Circumstances had, no doubt, changed since this great principle was laid down, and the shifting of the capital from Madinah to Damascus and from Damascus to Baghdad had made the Caliphate an absolute monarchy in all but name. While Iranian culture and principles attacked the sanctuary of Baghdad in the west, it converted the nomadic Turks of Central Asia in the east to their own way of thought, and when the Seljuqis reached the centre of the Caliphate they had already become thoroughly Persians."
The ability to ride this period, and as prime administrator for 30 years, to organise the empire and establish peace and prosperity, stamped the administration of Nizam al-Mulk as the period of the Golden Age for the Saljuq rule.
"He organized a system of education and started regular madrasahs I and founded several important colleges and universities and endowed them adequately with magnificent grants from the government. He selected the best qualified men and employed them as heads of colleges. Among these were Imam Ghazali and Imam al-Haramain at Nishapur, al-Shashi at Herat and Abu-Ishaq Shirazi at Baghdad. Tajud-Doula, another minister of Seljukid, founded a college under his name Tajiyya, and Nizam al-Mulk's other colleges were at Isfahan and Mery, which possessed 10 public libraries. Besides these, there were other colleges in all important cities, such as Samarkand, Balkh, Alleppo, Damascus, Ghazni and even Lahore. To these, the Khalifah Mustans'er added a magnificent college with library and other arrangements under the name of Mustansariyyah. There were 30 high schools in Alexandria and 17 centres of learning in Spain with 70 public libraries. Spanish Muslims were'so eager for education that from the Khalifah down to the poorest citizen, all were united in studying and undertaking the long journey in quest of knowledge. There were colleges, academies and libraries at Seville, Granada and Cordova. The last-named, possessed besides a most magnificent library, a college which produced over 170 eminent scholars."
Nizam al-Mulk's commitment to education was not solely restricted to the setting up of education institutions. Every effort was made to facilitate the search for knowledge through disbursement of scholarships, supplies of books, lodging, boarding and any other necessities, much of which were borne by the ruler.
Nizam al-Mulk's administrative acumen also brought progress to the infrastructural and economic development of the empire. Roads were built while taxes were appropriated. Land policies and matters received hisexpert attention since he had first-hand knowledge of all administrative affairs, especially those relating to land. As we are to discuss later, this was one of the more important economic affairs that he had significantly contributed to.
It is thus not surprising to read of various awards of recognition conferred upon this scholar by both Alp Arslan and Malik Shah. The Abbasid Caliph, al-Qa'im (1030-1075 AD), dignified him with the title of Radi-u Amir al-Mu'minin, an award never before conferred on a wazir. Malik Shah awarded him the high title of Atabek (literally meaning "Father Lord") for successfully meeting various threats and difficulties facing the former's rule.
As fate was to show, there were those who felt threatened by the administrative vigour and leadership of Nizam al-Mulk. The Ismailis ultimately acted against him through assassination because he opposed them on religious grounds and threatened their dangerous political designs. It was even stated that the period of glory for the Saljuqs ended with his death.
Major Works
Nizam al-Mulk has been reported as having three works to his credit, at least in terms of the ideas having originated from him even though he may not have been the one to write it wholly.
These three works are:
1. Siyasat Namah (The Book of Government/Statecraft), also known as Siyaru al-Muluk.
2. Dastur al- Wuzara' (The Conduct of Ministers) or also known as the Wasaya-i Khwajah Nizam al-Mulk (The Precepts of Khwajah Nizam al-Mulk). This book is henceforth referred to as the Wasaya. Some references refer this work as the Majma'u al-Wasaya.
3. Safar Namah (The Book of Travels), reported to be no more in existence.
On the first two works, the Wasaya is accompanied with some controversies pertaining to the question of whether it was indeed Nizam al-Mulk who wrote it.
"The Wasaya is not claimed to be the composition of Nizam al-Mulk himself in the sense in which the Siyasat Namah is considered to be his work. It was compiled in the ninth / fifteenth century by an anonymous person whose family, as he claims in the preface, descended from Nizam al-Mulk. He compiled it partly from the books and partly from the oral traditions handed down in his own family. Therefore, the anecdotes cited in it begin invariably with the phrase, "So says Khwajah Nizam al-Mulk." The preface, which is one of the reliable sources of Nizam al-Mulk's life, is evidently from the pen of the compiler. But the other two chapters, which form the main part of the work and contain much valuable material on the political ideas of this famous vizier, are composed from his own authentic writings and utterances. It has been justly remarked that it does not owe its contents to his pen. A large part of the Wasaya may be regarded as the actual utterances of Nizam al-Mulk."
With regards to its contents, the Wasaya is said to be an exposition of his theory of vizierate, or prime ministership, a mind-penetrating and powerful model of governmentship, which has much to lend to students of public administration and political science.
The Siyasat Namah has generally been recognized as the genuine composition of Nizam al-Mulk. It was a product of Malik Shah's instruction to his ministers to explain the cause of troubles affecting the nation. The ministers, including Sharaf al-Mulk, Taj al-Mulk, Majd al-Mulk and Nizam al-Mulk attempted to produce books on politics and administration. However, only Nizam al-Mulk's Siyasat Namah met with his approval, leading to Malik Shah declaring that it would form the law of the constitution of the nation in future.
This book itself contains 50 chapters, spreading over the tasks of identifying the factors of political success, royal prerogatives, duties along with the administration of every department of the government, the way for a state to attain stability and what could be the main requirements of the Saljuqian Empire. In short, this book details the plan of running a government successfully.
The significance of this book is such that "the main principles enunciated by it still guide nations and rulers in their relations with one another and in their domestic affairs." This is perhaps attributed to the high degree of pragmatism and viability inherent in the ideas propagated because the book is "an expression of a realistic political theory which emerges out of an actual political situation, and, therefore, help us to understand the stage the development of Muslim polity reached in the 5th century AH / 11th century AD." Thus, there exist a strong cohesion and cogent embodiment between theory and practice, partly arising out of the position of Nizam al-Mulk as a real-life statesman.
Administrative and Economic Outlook
Nature and Basic of the Government/State
Nizam al-Mulk conceived the state as a moral institution, ruled to attain good for the millah (nation/people). However, the state itself must be good and to be so, it must be founded on the values and principles of Islam, embodied as the Islamic Shari'ah. The nature of the Shari'ah is such that it does not dichotomies between the "religious" and "mundane" functions of the state. Hence, preservation of the material and mundane interests (such as property, welfare and equity) are as much Islamic objectives as the preservation of "religious" duties. Being a prime statesman involved in real life administration, Nizam al-Mulk strove towards transforming the ideals inherent in Islam into practical realities, an effort which had rewarded him with the attribute of being one who does not merely theorize, but rather, translate theories into pragmatism.
Principle of Masiahah in Administration
A wise and able statesman is one who meticulously weighs all arguments and considerations to a matter. The principle of maslahah (public interest) in Islam plays a significant pivotal role in this matter, as how Nizam al-Mulk is reported to have realised.
"If any short term interests came into conflict with moral principles on the one hand and the well-being of a larger entity or community on the other, he (Nizam al-Mulk) sacrificed the short-term gains. Nizam al-Mulk invariably sought to ensure a conformity and compatibility between the interests that he was employed to safeguard and those that he had to serve in conscience as an orthodox faithful Muslim."
Safeguarding Welfare, Productivity and Efficiency
Nizam al-Mulk was fully aware of the correlation of the three factors: welfare, productivity and efficiency. Safeguarding of welfare can substantially enhance expected productivity and level of efficiency (in the general sense of the word). We can observe this through the incident related below:
"There was a time when the affairs of Ray were causing worry to Nizam al-Mulk. He was informed by spies that Qutlumush had left the fortress of Kurd Kuh and started plundering the country and soon Ray was to be attacked. Alp Arslan also started towards Nishapur and he and his army reached Damghan. Alp Arslan, compelled by his brotherly affection, sent a message to Qutlumush to desist from mischief. Qutlumush did not pay any attention and started looting the area around Ray. Qutlumush filled Wadi al-Milh with water making a passage to Ray impossible. This situation worried Alp Arslan. Nizam al-Mulk said to him, "Do not worry at all. I have recruited soldiers whose shots never miss the targets. I have secured the loyalty of pious recites of the Holy Qur'an, the ulama and the sufis of Khurasan, whom I have treated with kindness and magnanimity. All of them are praying for the victory of the Sultan. This army of yours is your best support"
After saying this, he put on his armour, proceeded with Alp Arslan and distributed money to' the troops. The Sultan put his horse in the water and crossed it safe and sound along with the army. Then severe fighting started between Qutlumush and Alp Arslan in which Qutlumush was killed. When the Sultan returned to Ray in 456AH/IO63 AD, 'Amid al-Mulk welcomed him with full military honors. On this clear and decisive victory, Alp Arslan was greatly pleased with Nizam al-Mulk".
What this incident illustrates is that force, strictness and discipline must unconditionally be accompanied with the safeguarding of the human interests. Non-quantifiable and non-material factors such as kindness and .; magnanimity are as significant, if not more, than the quantifiable factors ! such as strength and volume of resources (in this case, the size of the army). It is well advised that this point should be seriously reflected upon by policy makers when evaluating the effectiveness and acceptability of their policies. If failures in economic policies arise, the question may be posed as to whether these failures are due to deficiency in resources or the discontentment over welfare interests of the policy implementers. As a general observation, strikes and work to rule practices emerge from unsatisfactory schemes of services. Similar observations may be made of the behavior of the other economic agents of the economy.
Relationship between Satisfaction of Basic Needs and National Stability
National Stability
National stability can be attained through ensuring that the basic needs of the society are sufficiently safeguarded and satisfied. Further enhancement can almost ensure the minimization of possible reasons for grievances that may be harbored against the ruler.
"Food should be plentiful and the state should organize free kitchens for the needy and the poor. The agricultural produce should be kept up so that there is no shortage of foodstuffs. State granaries should be maintained in the Empire to provide plentiful foodstuffs during natural calamities or bad harvests. Hoarding and cornering of necessities must be stopped and punished. The market is to be controlled in the interests of the consumer".
Need for Cautious Economising Measures
Managing the economic components of a state cannot be divorced from considering possible repercussions (desired or otherwise) affecting the other sectors of a nation. Nizam al-Mulk portrayed the quality of a national administrator, proving his far-sightedness in the following event:
"Malik Shah seems to have been persuaded by the argument, so he spoke to Nizam al-Mulk about the matter. He at once guessed that his opponents had been at work. He pointed out that if such a large number of men were dismissed, they would raise difficulties for the government. Besides, a large and expanding empire needed a large army. If the army was permitted to be reduced, the empire would shrink. Any person who recommended an economy of that kind was not a friend, for armies brought treasures and retrenchment of the armed forces was the surest method of losing territory as well as money. This argument settled the matter".
Hence, short-term, medium-term and long-term considerations must be appropriately weighted, so that the net consequences over a suitable time period will be to one's favor, instead of merely attaining favorable effects over the short-run period and ultimately suffering henceforth.
Optimal Employment of Labor vis-à-vis National Security
Optimal employment of labor is not only a matter of concern necessitating only considerations of economic variables. Non-economic variables are as equally important, if not more. Hence, economic policies and measures must be viewed in a comprehensive framework of considerations, one of which is national security, as portrayed by the following concern of Nizam al-Mulk.
"An unnecessary multiplication of posts and officers not only burdens the treasury but works against efficiency. If several persons share duties, the chances are that they would intrigue against each other and create complications and difficulties. It may be useful to shorten tenures of offices and rotate those holding them so that they do not become so well entrenched as to be in a position to intrigue against the monarch and create other difficulties. This is even more relevant in the case of provincial governors because if they become rooted in one place, the temptation to break away from central authority is very great".
Socio-Economic Equality
Nizam al-Mulk believed in the Islamic principle of equality, whereby everyone in the state, irrespective of status or power, shall receive equal opportunities. Equality in economic opportunities is a prerequisite for the attainment of social equality. The state or government bears the main responsibility of ensuring this. Socio-economic efforts towards this end included an effective management of zakah, large scale distribution of alms and gifts, building of inns and houses for the poor and employment provision for the people according to the capacity and worth.
Significance of the Need for a Just Tax System
No one can deny the need for a sound tax system and subsequently a healthy financial base. Nevertheless, Nizam al-Mulk believed that strong finance alone will not prevent national problems. As the following event is to illustrate, it was the nature of economic management rather than the volume of economic proceeds that was to play the pivotal role in eradicating a potential national health security threat:
"Once, Sultan Alp Arslan was about to move for an expedition against the Byzantine Empire. He, therefore, wanted to realize taxes in advance. The harvest time was a bit away and, therefore, the people were worried. Moreover, there was a plague in Merv which was taking a heavy toll of lives. One day, these happenings were discussed in the court. The Sultan said that neither the army nor money could prevent death. Nizam al-Mulk respectfully replied that only justice and benevolence could eradicate the plague. "I have read in the books of history," said he, "that a King wanted to know the exact position, of his treasury." Nobody knew his intention. The ministers of the empire very carefully verified and reported the correct position of the treasury to the King. After being informed of the sound position of the treasury, the King called upon all the officials of the state and thanked God in the presence of all of them and said that the position of the treasury was satisfactory and could meet any eventuality. "I promise that from now onward, nobody would be put to the trouble of the payment of taxes so long as the treasury is full. It will now be the duty of the officers to assure that even the weakest person is not oppressed by anyone even slightly." As a result, no death occurred during the next six years. It was quite manifest that the produce of the country had tremendously increased and people had prospered". After hearing this story, Sultan Alp Arslan cancelled his previous orders and met the requirements of I' the army from the treasury. It is obvious that if the Sultan had persisted in his design, the result would have been gross dissatisfaction, misery and failure of the scheme".
Land Policies
One of the major set of reforms developed by Nizam al-Mulk pertained to the administration of land. Several thought-provoking ideas were projected, drawing attention, supportive or otherwise, to the matter, even till today. Before venturing into some discussion of the more salient aspects of the reforms, we can perhaps read the following account of these land policies, as reported by M. Ruknuddin Hassan.
"The system of land assignment what Nizam al-Mulk calls the iqta' dari -may be regarded undoubtedly as the eastern form of feudalism as against the feudalism of medieval Europe. To a great extent, Nizam al-Mulk may be considered responsible for developing, if not for introducing, it on systematic lines within the political structure of the Saljuq empire. It was due to the military organization of the Saljuqs, on which their political structure ultimately came to rest, together with the problems of revenue administration, that the practice of assigning fiefs (iqta's) to the military chiefs, soldiers, and to other private persons was adopted. There were also the dihqans, the Old Persian land-owners, who continued to exercise proprietary rights as before. This system, in brief, was designed as a means of paying the soldiers and of collecting the revenues.
The principles on which Nizam al-Mulk suggests that the iqta' dari should be based, developed it into a feudal system very different from the western feudalism, both in character and in social and political consequences. It is basically different in the tenure of the feudatories, in their legal rights over the land and the ra'iyyah (vassals) as well as in the relation of the king as the overlord with the muqta's (feudatories), on the one hand, and with the subjects, on the other. The iqta' system, as envisaged by Nizam al-Mulk, is by no means strictly hereditary as a general rule. There is nothing in his writing to suggest that he is in favor of assigning lands to an individual with a specified legal right to transmit it by inheritance. On the other hand, , in his system, the feudatories come to occupy a position more akin to that of the tax-collectors with large administrative powers than that of the "feudal lords", in the medie6al sense. In their relations with the vassals, they are like the shihnahs (guards), and in case a feudatory fails to treat them well, "the fief, it is suggested, must be withdrawn from him". Besides, "the officials and the feudatories must be changed every two or three years so that they may not get strong in their fortifications".
It appears that side by side with developing the iqta' system, Nizam al-Mulk attempts to enlarge the powers of the king as a means of checking the centrifugal tendencies which tend to appear in feudalism. This leads him to put forward a theory of ownership which goes well with his idea of absolute monarchy. He holds that "the feudatories who hold the fiefs must know that they have no other right over the subjects than to extract from them with civility and courtesy the lawful amount which has been assigned to them, that is, to the feudatories, and when that has been taken, the subjects shall be secure in their persons, property, wives, and children, and in their goods and estates. The king, and the feudatories and the governors (walis), set over their head, are like the guards to the subjects, as the king is to others".
In entertaining such a view regarding land-ownership, Nizam al-Mulk departs from what may be regarded as the Islamic theory, which attributes the absolute ownership of land, not to the Head of the State, but to the state itself, as entrusted to it by God. It is also a clear departure from the traditional concept of the Ghuzz tribes, who looked upon the land that they would come to occupy as the common property of their families. It was this tribal concept of land-ownership that Nizam al-Mulk was seeking to modify basically, as it was out of tune with the administrative principle of a centralized empire which had now passed into their hands. To him, it was essential to bring both the land and the subjects under the central authority of the king.
A good deal of his theory, it appears, has come to him from the old feudal Persia. This is evident from his attempt to explain this principle by an anecdote from Persian history in which the famous vizier Buzurjmihr has been represented as advising Nushirwan that "the kingdom (wilayah) belongs to the king (malik), and the king has entrusted the dominion, and not the subjects, to the military. When the military is not well wishing unto the kingdom and kind to the people and takes the power to arrest and imprison and to appoint and dismiss, what difference then remains between the king and the military, for that power really belongs to the king and not to the military". On other occasions, Nushirwan exhorts his feudatories to treat the people well, and only to take from them what is due and just; and he stresses the fact that the dominion belongs to him, and it is by him that the estates have been assigned to them. Nizam al-Mulk's feudal theory takes away much of the powers from the hands of feudal lords which they enjoyed, for instance, as in western feudalism. It leaves them with limited power to collect the revenues and to have only "a fixed amount in their hands". Moreover, it removes them from the position of being the sole intermediaries between the king and the subjects, preventing the latter from getting into direct contact with the former. In his system, the direct responsibility for the well-being of the subjects rests, not with the feudatories, but with the king, and therefore, he suggests that the king should send spies (jasusan) and special confidants (khwas) to inquire secretly about administration in the fiefs in order to get reliable information about the condition of the subjects, and urges him to dismiss a feudatory who forbids subjects to represent their cases to the king in order to seek redress for grievances.
All this results in the concentration of all the political and administrative powers, as sought by Nizam al-Mulk, in the central authority of the king which was once enjoyed by the Persian autocrat."
One clear point of controversy raised by Hassan here pertains to what he perceived to be Nizam al-Mulk's alleged departure from an Islamic theory to land ownership. M.N. Siddiqi (1982) is in agreement with this view, stating that "Hassan rightly criticises this view (of Nizam al-Mulk) for being at variance with the Islamic principle, that it was the state and not the head of the state to which the land belonged". This issue should perhaps be addressed by asking the question: In the Islamic framework, are the state and the head of state to be seen as different entities, or rather, to be viewed as two sides of the same coin, one being the body itself while the other is a representative of that body? The discrepancy would arise if the state (as a whole) is unIslamically and unjustifiably at variance with the leader, at which stage, either the state or the ruler must be brought back in line to the Islamic path. This realignment should then be sufficient cause for placing aside any conception that the state and the ruler can contradict each other in objectives, approach and principles. For an enhanced appreciation of this matter, the next section on the attributes of a ruler should be read closely in context.
Siddiqi also wrote: "He (Nizam al-Mulk) recommended withdrawing land from the charge of the landlord if he failed to fulfil his obligations. The landlords were, in his (Nizam al-Mulk's) viezp, only tax collectors. They did not even have the right to fix the quantum of the tax, which was the privilege of the landlords and make the ruler all powerful.
The first question that one would be provoked to question here is: what could have been the reason(s) for this policy? The question of maslahah? The problem of non-optimal or sub-optimal utilisation of land, affecting the national coffers negatively? The circumstances of the time necessitating such measures for national security reasons in view of potential hazards of disloyalty from the difficult job of managing such a large empire? These and several other possible reasons should be explored and exhausted in order to give a fair analysis of Nizam al-Mulk's actions, improper as it may initially seem to be.
Attributes of the Head of State
The ruler or the Head of state is not a figurehead. Rather, his integrity, credibility, effectiveness and just holding of this leadership duty necessitate him to unconditionally possess or vigorously strive towards the following attributes:
". ..a comely appearance, a pleasing disposition, integrity, manliness, daring skill in horsemanship, knowledge of and expertise in the use of various kinds of arms and accomplishment in different arts, pity and mercy upon the creatures of God, strictness in the performance of promises, sound faith and true belief, devotion to the worship of God and the practice of such virtuous deeds as praying in the night, (that is, in addition to the prescribed times of fard prayer) abundant fasting, respect for religious authorities, honoring devout and pious men, winning the society of men of learning and wisdom, giving regular alms, doing good to the poor, being kind to subordinates and servants, and relieving the people from their oppressors".
One fact that had been impressed upon him was the highly exemplary characteristic of past Persian rulers, who allowed them to be judged in courts if complaints were made against them by the people. As a Muslim, Nizam al-Mulk believed that taqwa (piety) can lead to this willingness, committed in all sincerity. Hence, the ruler must not only qualitatively develop himself but close avenues that could lead to opposing objectives (That is evil).
"Hence (the ruler) should make every effort to become popular through his service to the people because on the support of the people would lie his real strength. He must guard himself against becoming a tyrant. The best method of doing so is to cultivate piety and respect for the Shari'ah because so long as he follows the law he cannot incline towards tyranny as the Shari'ah prescribes excellent limits of authority and its exercise.
He should make every effort to enforce justice not only among the people at large but also to punish wrongdoers and oppressors among his officials who should not be permitted to exceed their legitimate authority.
He should keep good company and cultivate the society of men who give him sound advice. For this, he has to cultivate a good judgment, because without a sound judgment, he can neither be a good judge of men, nor of their motives, nor of the quality of the advice that they tender".
The Nature, Role and Control of Public Servants
Nizam al-Mulk believed that the Head of State as conditioned in the preceding section, must necessarily be supported by an equally strong supporting set of public servants. Besides qualitatively developing these public servants, preventive measures to ensure the safeguarding of these public servants must be established. Hence, the need for a proper system of checks and balances so that abuse of public authority will not occur.
"The monarch should be in a position to enforce obedience to his orders and if orders are not obeyed and discipline is undermined among the public servants or any other sector of the subjects, the stability of the state would be threatened. In fact, the power to enforce obedience is the real bastion of the strength of the state. The public servants being of such importance for the efficiency of the government and the stability of the state should be chosen carefully. It has already been mentioned that the utmost vigilance should be exercised in preventing heretics, unbelievers or disloyal persons infiltrating into the service, because their main motive would be to disrupt the state or at least they would become willing agents of disloyal and hostile elements.
In choosing the public servants their merit as governed by right belief and loyalty is to be kept in view. Their capacity for good and efficient service should form a yardstick. From this, it follows that efficiency would suffer greatly if worthless favorites or their recommendees are recruited or promoted. This will also enable him to keep an eye upon traitors and treacherous activities. The Sultan would then be forewarned and thus forearmed and quite often be able to nip the mischief in the bud".
It need not be extensively argued here of the significance of this issue. Misappropriation of funds, abuse of power, authority and status, criminal and civil breaches of trusts, corruption and white-collar crimes are reflective of societies which neglect this obvious fact. Economically and less-economically developed nations of today commonly face this dilemma. It is just the differing degrees of occurrences and their subtleties which may cause one nation's plight to be more highlighted than the others'.
M.R. Hassan rightly highlighted Nizam al-Mulk's emphasis on the quality of responsibilities towards the people when he wrote of Nizam al-Mulk as arguing that:
". ..a good monarch must rule, not for his own good, but for the good office whole country. He is responsible for the welfare of his subjects, and is personally accountable to God, not only for his own conduct, but also for the conduct of his officials towards the people. It is, therefore, an essential part of his duty that he should appoint as government officers only those who are God-fearing, learned, pious, and righteous, and should instruct them to treat the people well, because as justice brings prosperity, oppression leads to the devastation of a country".
The Role and Attributes of the Muhtasib
Focusing on the market economy itself, Nizam al-Mulk wrote of the role of the muhtasib. Again, where heavy responsibilities are to be shouldered necessitating inherent qualities of trustworthiness, accountability, reliability and piety, then those to be appointed into the post of a muhtasib must necessarily be men of high integrity. To be able to ensure a law-abiding and contented society is of prime prerequisite for national stability and peace, conditions conducive for the further development of the society.
The less-to-do section of the population was extended special attention because even the poor could be potential rebels if their discontentment and patience were pushed too far.
"The peasantry is to be specially looked after and all help should be extended to it. Besides, it should be effectively protected from the mischief of corrupt collectors of revenue, who should not be permitted to extort any money from the cultivators. All public spending must be directed towards common good and it should be remembered that the treasury really belongs to the people".
Public Complaints Court
Nizam al-Mulk was very much impressed and partly inspired by the ancient Persian kings' methods of the administration of justice. The principle of direct responsibility adhered to by some of the more well-known kings such as Nushirwan the Just, reached the extent whereby the kings allowed themselves to be respondents before the Chief Justice. This is to allow the possibility of people who may have complaints against even the ruler.
Hence, Nizam al-Mulk advocated for the necessary holding of a public complaints court, presided by the ruler himself. Such a court must, without fail, be held twice a week to exact redress from the unjust, to dispense justice and to allow the people to have direct access to the ruler himself for such serious matters, rather than to restrict them to the use of an intermediary.
Correcting the Misconception of Nizam al-Mulk as a Persian Nationalist
Nizam al-Mulk have been implicated as a person "serving the cause of Persian nationalism". It cannot be denied that in many matters, he had looked into his Persian heritage. This included among others, his concern for the administration of justice by the ruler and several aspects of his land policies.
However, it must be noted that he was a devout Muslim statesman with a firm Islamic conviction. This is clear without further proving. Even as he advocated the various aspects of land policies, justice system and others, he adhered to the Islamic value pattern and principles to extract the Islamically acceptable features of the Persian heritage. Furthermore, "as the Muslim administrative tradition in the East had adapted many institutions and procedures from pre-Islamic Iranian traditions, their influences can surely be traced in Nizam al-Mulk's thought; but that is a far cry from saying that he was serving the cause of Persian nationalism". Indeed, even in the Shari'ah matters and views on administration and statecraft and framework, it can safely be stated that he followed the opinions of Muslim fuqaha such as al-Mawardi. What he had done was to apply both the Islamically -acceptable aspects of the Persian heritage and the conceptual writings of 'ulama in the manner which he thought was best for the society contemporary to his time.
Khwajah Abu Ali Hasan Ibn Ali Ishaq was a landmark figure of the history and rule of the Saljuq Turks, who established their Sultanate in the name of the caliphs of Baghdad. He is better known.in history as Nizam al-Mulk, a title of honor, conferred upon him by the founder of the Saljuq dynasty, Sultan Alp Arslan.
It was in 408 AH/IO17 AD that Nizam al-Mulk was born, in the small town of Radhkan (or Nuqan?) located in the suburb of Tus, about 50 miles to the north of Mashhad in Persia. He belonged to a family of middle-class landowners (dihqans) and in the days of the Ghaznawids, his father was appointed a tax-collector of Tus by Abu al-Fadl Sun, the governor of Khurasan.
Nizam al-Mulk had his early education in the study of Hadith and fiqh. Upon his father's desire to see him pursuing the legal profession, he was initially placed under the guidance of 'Abd al-Samad Funduraji, a profound scholar of law. He then studied with an outstanding Shafi'i 'alim known as Iman Muwaffaq of Nishapur. This would probably be the main reason for his allegiance to the Shafi'i madzhab, as apparent in his (Nizam al-Mulk's) major work, Siyasat Namah. After his studies, Nizam al-Mulk, although being a Persian, was to begin his gradual and eventual, but initially unplanned, administrative mastery of the Turkish Saljuq empire.
". ..he travelled to Bukhara and Merv, and to a number of towns in Transoxiana, most probably in search of a post, and after 441 AH /1049 AD, he went to Ghaznah, where he sought service with the Ghaznawids, thus getting an opportunity to acquaint himself with their administration. When Sultan Abd al-Rashid was murdered in 444 AH /1052 AD and the political affairs were upset, he escaped to Balkh and entered the service of Ali Ibn Shadhan, who was then the governor of that province on behalf of the Saljuq ruler Chaghari Beg Dawud. Annoyed with the habits of this man, who extorted heavy sums from him every year, he fled to Merv; there Chaghari Beg appointed him the mushir (counsellor) and the katib (secretary) of his son, Alp Arslan. It was on the advice of~li Ibn Shadhan that Alp Arslan, after his accession to the throne in 455 AH /1062 AD, raised him to the position of a Joint Minister with Amidal-Mulk Kunduri."
After the death of Kunduri, Nizam al-Mulk became a full-fledged prime IIlinister or wazir of the Saljuq empire. He held the reins of the empire during the rules of Alp Arslan and his successor-son, Malik Shah, especially during the rule of the latter who succeeded to the throne in 465 AH/I072 AD.
The period of Nizam al-Mulk's life and Prime Ministership has been, labelled as a period of change. "... (it was a period of) a great conflict between the accepted ideas of Islamic policy and the Perso-Turkish notions which were slowly creeping into the body-politic of the Caliphate. The Islamic principle of political conduct was that the ruler should not be a super-legal person free to act as he willed, but that he should definitely and without doubt be under the Divine Law as laid down by the Apostle of Islam. Circumstances had, no doubt, changed since this great principle was laid down, and the shifting of the capital from Madinah to Damascus and from Damascus to Baghdad had made the Caliphate an absolute monarchy in all but name. While Iranian culture and principles attacked the sanctuary of Baghdad in the west, it converted the nomadic Turks of Central Asia in the east to their own way of thought, and when the Seljuqis reached the centre of the Caliphate they had already become thoroughly Persians."
The ability to ride this period, and as prime administrator for 30 years, to organise the empire and establish peace and prosperity, stamped the administration of Nizam al-Mulk as the period of the Golden Age for the Saljuq rule.
"He organized a system of education and started regular madrasahs I and founded several important colleges and universities and endowed them adequately with magnificent grants from the government. He selected the best qualified men and employed them as heads of colleges. Among these were Imam Ghazali and Imam al-Haramain at Nishapur, al-Shashi at Herat and Abu-Ishaq Shirazi at Baghdad. Tajud-Doula, another minister of Seljukid, founded a college under his name Tajiyya, and Nizam al-Mulk's other colleges were at Isfahan and Mery, which possessed 10 public libraries. Besides these, there were other colleges in all important cities, such as Samarkand, Balkh, Alleppo, Damascus, Ghazni and even Lahore. To these, the Khalifah Mustans'er added a magnificent college with library and other arrangements under the name of Mustansariyyah. There were 30 high schools in Alexandria and 17 centres of learning in Spain with 70 public libraries. Spanish Muslims were'so eager for education that from the Khalifah down to the poorest citizen, all were united in studying and undertaking the long journey in quest of knowledge. There were colleges, academies and libraries at Seville, Granada and Cordova. The last-named, possessed besides a most magnificent library, a college which produced over 170 eminent scholars."
Nizam al-Mulk's commitment to education was not solely restricted to the setting up of education institutions. Every effort was made to facilitate the search for knowledge through disbursement of scholarships, supplies of books, lodging, boarding and any other necessities, much of which were borne by the ruler.
Nizam al-Mulk's administrative acumen also brought progress to the infrastructural and economic development of the empire. Roads were built while taxes were appropriated. Land policies and matters received hisexpert attention since he had first-hand knowledge of all administrative affairs, especially those relating to land. As we are to discuss later, this was one of the more important economic affairs that he had significantly contributed to.
It is thus not surprising to read of various awards of recognition conferred upon this scholar by both Alp Arslan and Malik Shah. The Abbasid Caliph, al-Qa'im (1030-1075 AD), dignified him with the title of Radi-u Amir al-Mu'minin, an award never before conferred on a wazir. Malik Shah awarded him the high title of Atabek (literally meaning "Father Lord") for successfully meeting various threats and difficulties facing the former's rule.
As fate was to show, there were those who felt threatened by the administrative vigour and leadership of Nizam al-Mulk. The Ismailis ultimately acted against him through assassination because he opposed them on religious grounds and threatened their dangerous political designs. It was even stated that the period of glory for the Saljuqs ended with his death.
Major Works
Nizam al-Mulk has been reported as having three works to his credit, at least in terms of the ideas having originated from him even though he may not have been the one to write it wholly.
These three works are:
1. Siyasat Namah (The Book of Government/Statecraft), also known as Siyaru al-Muluk.
2. Dastur al- Wuzara' (The Conduct of Ministers) or also known as the Wasaya-i Khwajah Nizam al-Mulk (The Precepts of Khwajah Nizam al-Mulk). This book is henceforth referred to as the Wasaya. Some references refer this work as the Majma'u al-Wasaya.
3. Safar Namah (The Book of Travels), reported to be no more in existence.
On the first two works, the Wasaya is accompanied with some controversies pertaining to the question of whether it was indeed Nizam al-Mulk who wrote it.
"The Wasaya is not claimed to be the composition of Nizam al-Mulk himself in the sense in which the Siyasat Namah is considered to be his work. It was compiled in the ninth / fifteenth century by an anonymous person whose family, as he claims in the preface, descended from Nizam al-Mulk. He compiled it partly from the books and partly from the oral traditions handed down in his own family. Therefore, the anecdotes cited in it begin invariably with the phrase, "So says Khwajah Nizam al-Mulk." The preface, which is one of the reliable sources of Nizam al-Mulk's life, is evidently from the pen of the compiler. But the other two chapters, which form the main part of the work and contain much valuable material on the political ideas of this famous vizier, are composed from his own authentic writings and utterances. It has been justly remarked that it does not owe its contents to his pen. A large part of the Wasaya may be regarded as the actual utterances of Nizam al-Mulk."
With regards to its contents, the Wasaya is said to be an exposition of his theory of vizierate, or prime ministership, a mind-penetrating and powerful model of governmentship, which has much to lend to students of public administration and political science.
The Siyasat Namah has generally been recognized as the genuine composition of Nizam al-Mulk. It was a product of Malik Shah's instruction to his ministers to explain the cause of troubles affecting the nation. The ministers, including Sharaf al-Mulk, Taj al-Mulk, Majd al-Mulk and Nizam al-Mulk attempted to produce books on politics and administration. However, only Nizam al-Mulk's Siyasat Namah met with his approval, leading to Malik Shah declaring that it would form the law of the constitution of the nation in future.
This book itself contains 50 chapters, spreading over the tasks of identifying the factors of political success, royal prerogatives, duties along with the administration of every department of the government, the way for a state to attain stability and what could be the main requirements of the Saljuqian Empire. In short, this book details the plan of running a government successfully.
The significance of this book is such that "the main principles enunciated by it still guide nations and rulers in their relations with one another and in their domestic affairs." This is perhaps attributed to the high degree of pragmatism and viability inherent in the ideas propagated because the book is "an expression of a realistic political theory which emerges out of an actual political situation, and, therefore, help us to understand the stage the development of Muslim polity reached in the 5th century AH / 11th century AD." Thus, there exist a strong cohesion and cogent embodiment between theory and practice, partly arising out of the position of Nizam al-Mulk as a real-life statesman.
Administrative and Economic Outlook
Nature and Basic of the Government/State
Nizam al-Mulk conceived the state as a moral institution, ruled to attain good for the millah (nation/people). However, the state itself must be good and to be so, it must be founded on the values and principles of Islam, embodied as the Islamic Shari'ah. The nature of the Shari'ah is such that it does not dichotomies between the "religious" and "mundane" functions of the state. Hence, preservation of the material and mundane interests (such as property, welfare and equity) are as much Islamic objectives as the preservation of "religious" duties. Being a prime statesman involved in real life administration, Nizam al-Mulk strove towards transforming the ideals inherent in Islam into practical realities, an effort which had rewarded him with the attribute of being one who does not merely theorize, but rather, translate theories into pragmatism.
Principle of Masiahah in Administration
A wise and able statesman is one who meticulously weighs all arguments and considerations to a matter. The principle of maslahah (public interest) in Islam plays a significant pivotal role in this matter, as how Nizam al-Mulk is reported to have realised.
"If any short term interests came into conflict with moral principles on the one hand and the well-being of a larger entity or community on the other, he (Nizam al-Mulk) sacrificed the short-term gains. Nizam al-Mulk invariably sought to ensure a conformity and compatibility between the interests that he was employed to safeguard and those that he had to serve in conscience as an orthodox faithful Muslim."
Safeguarding Welfare, Productivity and Efficiency
Nizam al-Mulk was fully aware of the correlation of the three factors: welfare, productivity and efficiency. Safeguarding of welfare can substantially enhance expected productivity and level of efficiency (in the general sense of the word). We can observe this through the incident related below:
"There was a time when the affairs of Ray were causing worry to Nizam al-Mulk. He was informed by spies that Qutlumush had left the fortress of Kurd Kuh and started plundering the country and soon Ray was to be attacked. Alp Arslan also started towards Nishapur and he and his army reached Damghan. Alp Arslan, compelled by his brotherly affection, sent a message to Qutlumush to desist from mischief. Qutlumush did not pay any attention and started looting the area around Ray. Qutlumush filled Wadi al-Milh with water making a passage to Ray impossible. This situation worried Alp Arslan. Nizam al-Mulk said to him, "Do not worry at all. I have recruited soldiers whose shots never miss the targets. I have secured the loyalty of pious recites of the Holy Qur'an, the ulama and the sufis of Khurasan, whom I have treated with kindness and magnanimity. All of them are praying for the victory of the Sultan. This army of yours is your best support"
After saying this, he put on his armour, proceeded with Alp Arslan and distributed money to' the troops. The Sultan put his horse in the water and crossed it safe and sound along with the army. Then severe fighting started between Qutlumush and Alp Arslan in which Qutlumush was killed. When the Sultan returned to Ray in 456AH/IO63 AD, 'Amid al-Mulk welcomed him with full military honors. On this clear and decisive victory, Alp Arslan was greatly pleased with Nizam al-Mulk".
What this incident illustrates is that force, strictness and discipline must unconditionally be accompanied with the safeguarding of the human interests. Non-quantifiable and non-material factors such as kindness and .; magnanimity are as significant, if not more, than the quantifiable factors ! such as strength and volume of resources (in this case, the size of the army). It is well advised that this point should be seriously reflected upon by policy makers when evaluating the effectiveness and acceptability of their policies. If failures in economic policies arise, the question may be posed as to whether these failures are due to deficiency in resources or the discontentment over welfare interests of the policy implementers. As a general observation, strikes and work to rule practices emerge from unsatisfactory schemes of services. Similar observations may be made of the behavior of the other economic agents of the economy.
Relationship between Satisfaction of Basic Needs and National Stability
National Stability
National stability can be attained through ensuring that the basic needs of the society are sufficiently safeguarded and satisfied. Further enhancement can almost ensure the minimization of possible reasons for grievances that may be harbored against the ruler.
"Food should be plentiful and the state should organize free kitchens for the needy and the poor. The agricultural produce should be kept up so that there is no shortage of foodstuffs. State granaries should be maintained in the Empire to provide plentiful foodstuffs during natural calamities or bad harvests. Hoarding and cornering of necessities must be stopped and punished. The market is to be controlled in the interests of the consumer".
Need for Cautious Economising Measures
Managing the economic components of a state cannot be divorced from considering possible repercussions (desired or otherwise) affecting the other sectors of a nation. Nizam al-Mulk portrayed the quality of a national administrator, proving his far-sightedness in the following event:
"Malik Shah seems to have been persuaded by the argument, so he spoke to Nizam al-Mulk about the matter. He at once guessed that his opponents had been at work. He pointed out that if such a large number of men were dismissed, they would raise difficulties for the government. Besides, a large and expanding empire needed a large army. If the army was permitted to be reduced, the empire would shrink. Any person who recommended an economy of that kind was not a friend, for armies brought treasures and retrenchment of the armed forces was the surest method of losing territory as well as money. This argument settled the matter".
Hence, short-term, medium-term and long-term considerations must be appropriately weighted, so that the net consequences over a suitable time period will be to one's favor, instead of merely attaining favorable effects over the short-run period and ultimately suffering henceforth.
Optimal Employment of Labor vis-à-vis National Security
Optimal employment of labor is not only a matter of concern necessitating only considerations of economic variables. Non-economic variables are as equally important, if not more. Hence, economic policies and measures must be viewed in a comprehensive framework of considerations, one of which is national security, as portrayed by the following concern of Nizam al-Mulk.
"An unnecessary multiplication of posts and officers not only burdens the treasury but works against efficiency. If several persons share duties, the chances are that they would intrigue against each other and create complications and difficulties. It may be useful to shorten tenures of offices and rotate those holding them so that they do not become so well entrenched as to be in a position to intrigue against the monarch and create other difficulties. This is even more relevant in the case of provincial governors because if they become rooted in one place, the temptation to break away from central authority is very great".
Socio-Economic Equality
Nizam al-Mulk believed in the Islamic principle of equality, whereby everyone in the state, irrespective of status or power, shall receive equal opportunities. Equality in economic opportunities is a prerequisite for the attainment of social equality. The state or government bears the main responsibility of ensuring this. Socio-economic efforts towards this end included an effective management of zakah, large scale distribution of alms and gifts, building of inns and houses for the poor and employment provision for the people according to the capacity and worth.
Significance of the Need for a Just Tax System
No one can deny the need for a sound tax system and subsequently a healthy financial base. Nevertheless, Nizam al-Mulk believed that strong finance alone will not prevent national problems. As the following event is to illustrate, it was the nature of economic management rather than the volume of economic proceeds that was to play the pivotal role in eradicating a potential national health security threat:
"Once, Sultan Alp Arslan was about to move for an expedition against the Byzantine Empire. He, therefore, wanted to realize taxes in advance. The harvest time was a bit away and, therefore, the people were worried. Moreover, there was a plague in Merv which was taking a heavy toll of lives. One day, these happenings were discussed in the court. The Sultan said that neither the army nor money could prevent death. Nizam al-Mulk respectfully replied that only justice and benevolence could eradicate the plague. "I have read in the books of history," said he, "that a King wanted to know the exact position, of his treasury." Nobody knew his intention. The ministers of the empire very carefully verified and reported the correct position of the treasury to the King. After being informed of the sound position of the treasury, the King called upon all the officials of the state and thanked God in the presence of all of them and said that the position of the treasury was satisfactory and could meet any eventuality. "I promise that from now onward, nobody would be put to the trouble of the payment of taxes so long as the treasury is full. It will now be the duty of the officers to assure that even the weakest person is not oppressed by anyone even slightly." As a result, no death occurred during the next six years. It was quite manifest that the produce of the country had tremendously increased and people had prospered". After hearing this story, Sultan Alp Arslan cancelled his previous orders and met the requirements of I' the army from the treasury. It is obvious that if the Sultan had persisted in his design, the result would have been gross dissatisfaction, misery and failure of the scheme".
Land Policies
One of the major set of reforms developed by Nizam al-Mulk pertained to the administration of land. Several thought-provoking ideas were projected, drawing attention, supportive or otherwise, to the matter, even till today. Before venturing into some discussion of the more salient aspects of the reforms, we can perhaps read the following account of these land policies, as reported by M. Ruknuddin Hassan.
"The system of land assignment what Nizam al-Mulk calls the iqta' dari -may be regarded undoubtedly as the eastern form of feudalism as against the feudalism of medieval Europe. To a great extent, Nizam al-Mulk may be considered responsible for developing, if not for introducing, it on systematic lines within the political structure of the Saljuq empire. It was due to the military organization of the Saljuqs, on which their political structure ultimately came to rest, together with the problems of revenue administration, that the practice of assigning fiefs (iqta's) to the military chiefs, soldiers, and to other private persons was adopted. There were also the dihqans, the Old Persian land-owners, who continued to exercise proprietary rights as before. This system, in brief, was designed as a means of paying the soldiers and of collecting the revenues.
The principles on which Nizam al-Mulk suggests that the iqta' dari should be based, developed it into a feudal system very different from the western feudalism, both in character and in social and political consequences. It is basically different in the tenure of the feudatories, in their legal rights over the land and the ra'iyyah (vassals) as well as in the relation of the king as the overlord with the muqta's (feudatories), on the one hand, and with the subjects, on the other. The iqta' system, as envisaged by Nizam al-Mulk, is by no means strictly hereditary as a general rule. There is nothing in his writing to suggest that he is in favor of assigning lands to an individual with a specified legal right to transmit it by inheritance. On the other hand, , in his system, the feudatories come to occupy a position more akin to that of the tax-collectors with large administrative powers than that of the "feudal lords", in the medie6al sense. In their relations with the vassals, they are like the shihnahs (guards), and in case a feudatory fails to treat them well, "the fief, it is suggested, must be withdrawn from him". Besides, "the officials and the feudatories must be changed every two or three years so that they may not get strong in their fortifications".
It appears that side by side with developing the iqta' system, Nizam al-Mulk attempts to enlarge the powers of the king as a means of checking the centrifugal tendencies which tend to appear in feudalism. This leads him to put forward a theory of ownership which goes well with his idea of absolute monarchy. He holds that "the feudatories who hold the fiefs must know that they have no other right over the subjects than to extract from them with civility and courtesy the lawful amount which has been assigned to them, that is, to the feudatories, and when that has been taken, the subjects shall be secure in their persons, property, wives, and children, and in their goods and estates. The king, and the feudatories and the governors (walis), set over their head, are like the guards to the subjects, as the king is to others".
In entertaining such a view regarding land-ownership, Nizam al-Mulk departs from what may be regarded as the Islamic theory, which attributes the absolute ownership of land, not to the Head of the State, but to the state itself, as entrusted to it by God. It is also a clear departure from the traditional concept of the Ghuzz tribes, who looked upon the land that they would come to occupy as the common property of their families. It was this tribal concept of land-ownership that Nizam al-Mulk was seeking to modify basically, as it was out of tune with the administrative principle of a centralized empire which had now passed into their hands. To him, it was essential to bring both the land and the subjects under the central authority of the king.
A good deal of his theory, it appears, has come to him from the old feudal Persia. This is evident from his attempt to explain this principle by an anecdote from Persian history in which the famous vizier Buzurjmihr has been represented as advising Nushirwan that "the kingdom (wilayah) belongs to the king (malik), and the king has entrusted the dominion, and not the subjects, to the military. When the military is not well wishing unto the kingdom and kind to the people and takes the power to arrest and imprison and to appoint and dismiss, what difference then remains between the king and the military, for that power really belongs to the king and not to the military". On other occasions, Nushirwan exhorts his feudatories to treat the people well, and only to take from them what is due and just; and he stresses the fact that the dominion belongs to him, and it is by him that the estates have been assigned to them. Nizam al-Mulk's feudal theory takes away much of the powers from the hands of feudal lords which they enjoyed, for instance, as in western feudalism. It leaves them with limited power to collect the revenues and to have only "a fixed amount in their hands". Moreover, it removes them from the position of being the sole intermediaries between the king and the subjects, preventing the latter from getting into direct contact with the former. In his system, the direct responsibility for the well-being of the subjects rests, not with the feudatories, but with the king, and therefore, he suggests that the king should send spies (jasusan) and special confidants (khwas) to inquire secretly about administration in the fiefs in order to get reliable information about the condition of the subjects, and urges him to dismiss a feudatory who forbids subjects to represent their cases to the king in order to seek redress for grievances.
All this results in the concentration of all the political and administrative powers, as sought by Nizam al-Mulk, in the central authority of the king which was once enjoyed by the Persian autocrat."
One clear point of controversy raised by Hassan here pertains to what he perceived to be Nizam al-Mulk's alleged departure from an Islamic theory to land ownership. M.N. Siddiqi (1982) is in agreement with this view, stating that "Hassan rightly criticises this view (of Nizam al-Mulk) for being at variance with the Islamic principle, that it was the state and not the head of the state to which the land belonged". This issue should perhaps be addressed by asking the question: In the Islamic framework, are the state and the head of state to be seen as different entities, or rather, to be viewed as two sides of the same coin, one being the body itself while the other is a representative of that body? The discrepancy would arise if the state (as a whole) is unIslamically and unjustifiably at variance with the leader, at which stage, either the state or the ruler must be brought back in line to the Islamic path. This realignment should then be sufficient cause for placing aside any conception that the state and the ruler can contradict each other in objectives, approach and principles. For an enhanced appreciation of this matter, the next section on the attributes of a ruler should be read closely in context.
Siddiqi also wrote: "He (Nizam al-Mulk) recommended withdrawing land from the charge of the landlord if he failed to fulfil his obligations. The landlords were, in his (Nizam al-Mulk's) viezp, only tax collectors. They did not even have the right to fix the quantum of the tax, which was the privilege of the landlords and make the ruler all powerful.
The first question that one would be provoked to question here is: what could have been the reason(s) for this policy? The question of maslahah? The problem of non-optimal or sub-optimal utilisation of land, affecting the national coffers negatively? The circumstances of the time necessitating such measures for national security reasons in view of potential hazards of disloyalty from the difficult job of managing such a large empire? These and several other possible reasons should be explored and exhausted in order to give a fair analysis of Nizam al-Mulk's actions, improper as it may initially seem to be.
Attributes of the Head of State
The ruler or the Head of state is not a figurehead. Rather, his integrity, credibility, effectiveness and just holding of this leadership duty necessitate him to unconditionally possess or vigorously strive towards the following attributes:
". ..a comely appearance, a pleasing disposition, integrity, manliness, daring skill in horsemanship, knowledge of and expertise in the use of various kinds of arms and accomplishment in different arts, pity and mercy upon the creatures of God, strictness in the performance of promises, sound faith and true belief, devotion to the worship of God and the practice of such virtuous deeds as praying in the night, (that is, in addition to the prescribed times of fard prayer) abundant fasting, respect for religious authorities, honoring devout and pious men, winning the society of men of learning and wisdom, giving regular alms, doing good to the poor, being kind to subordinates and servants, and relieving the people from their oppressors".
One fact that had been impressed upon him was the highly exemplary characteristic of past Persian rulers, who allowed them to be judged in courts if complaints were made against them by the people. As a Muslim, Nizam al-Mulk believed that taqwa (piety) can lead to this willingness, committed in all sincerity. Hence, the ruler must not only qualitatively develop himself but close avenues that could lead to opposing objectives (That is evil).
"Hence (the ruler) should make every effort to become popular through his service to the people because on the support of the people would lie his real strength. He must guard himself against becoming a tyrant. The best method of doing so is to cultivate piety and respect for the Shari'ah because so long as he follows the law he cannot incline towards tyranny as the Shari'ah prescribes excellent limits of authority and its exercise.
He should make every effort to enforce justice not only among the people at large but also to punish wrongdoers and oppressors among his officials who should not be permitted to exceed their legitimate authority.
He should keep good company and cultivate the society of men who give him sound advice. For this, he has to cultivate a good judgment, because without a sound judgment, he can neither be a good judge of men, nor of their motives, nor of the quality of the advice that they tender".
The Nature, Role and Control of Public Servants
Nizam al-Mulk believed that the Head of State as conditioned in the preceding section, must necessarily be supported by an equally strong supporting set of public servants. Besides qualitatively developing these public servants, preventive measures to ensure the safeguarding of these public servants must be established. Hence, the need for a proper system of checks and balances so that abuse of public authority will not occur.
"The monarch should be in a position to enforce obedience to his orders and if orders are not obeyed and discipline is undermined among the public servants or any other sector of the subjects, the stability of the state would be threatened. In fact, the power to enforce obedience is the real bastion of the strength of the state. The public servants being of such importance for the efficiency of the government and the stability of the state should be chosen carefully. It has already been mentioned that the utmost vigilance should be exercised in preventing heretics, unbelievers or disloyal persons infiltrating into the service, because their main motive would be to disrupt the state or at least they would become willing agents of disloyal and hostile elements.
In choosing the public servants their merit as governed by right belief and loyalty is to be kept in view. Their capacity for good and efficient service should form a yardstick. From this, it follows that efficiency would suffer greatly if worthless favorites or their recommendees are recruited or promoted. This will also enable him to keep an eye upon traitors and treacherous activities. The Sultan would then be forewarned and thus forearmed and quite often be able to nip the mischief in the bud".
It need not be extensively argued here of the significance of this issue. Misappropriation of funds, abuse of power, authority and status, criminal and civil breaches of trusts, corruption and white-collar crimes are reflective of societies which neglect this obvious fact. Economically and less-economically developed nations of today commonly face this dilemma. It is just the differing degrees of occurrences and their subtleties which may cause one nation's plight to be more highlighted than the others'.
M.R. Hassan rightly highlighted Nizam al-Mulk's emphasis on the quality of responsibilities towards the people when he wrote of Nizam al-Mulk as arguing that:
". ..a good monarch must rule, not for his own good, but for the good office whole country. He is responsible for the welfare of his subjects, and is personally accountable to God, not only for his own conduct, but also for the conduct of his officials towards the people. It is, therefore, an essential part of his duty that he should appoint as government officers only those who are God-fearing, learned, pious, and righteous, and should instruct them to treat the people well, because as justice brings prosperity, oppression leads to the devastation of a country".
The Role and Attributes of the Muhtasib
Focusing on the market economy itself, Nizam al-Mulk wrote of the role of the muhtasib. Again, where heavy responsibilities are to be shouldered necessitating inherent qualities of trustworthiness, accountability, reliability and piety, then those to be appointed into the post of a muhtasib must necessarily be men of high integrity. To be able to ensure a law-abiding and contented society is of prime prerequisite for national stability and peace, conditions conducive for the further development of the society.
The less-to-do section of the population was extended special attention because even the poor could be potential rebels if their discontentment and patience were pushed too far.
"The peasantry is to be specially looked after and all help should be extended to it. Besides, it should be effectively protected from the mischief of corrupt collectors of revenue, who should not be permitted to extort any money from the cultivators. All public spending must be directed towards common good and it should be remembered that the treasury really belongs to the people".
Public Complaints Court
Nizam al-Mulk was very much impressed and partly inspired by the ancient Persian kings' methods of the administration of justice. The principle of direct responsibility adhered to by some of the more well-known kings such as Nushirwan the Just, reached the extent whereby the kings allowed themselves to be respondents before the Chief Justice. This is to allow the possibility of people who may have complaints against even the ruler.
Hence, Nizam al-Mulk advocated for the necessary holding of a public complaints court, presided by the ruler himself. Such a court must, without fail, be held twice a week to exact redress from the unjust, to dispense justice and to allow the people to have direct access to the ruler himself for such serious matters, rather than to restrict them to the use of an intermediary.
Correcting the Misconception of Nizam al-Mulk as a Persian Nationalist
Nizam al-Mulk have been implicated as a person "serving the cause of Persian nationalism". It cannot be denied that in many matters, he had looked into his Persian heritage. This included among others, his concern for the administration of justice by the ruler and several aspects of his land policies.
However, it must be noted that he was a devout Muslim statesman with a firm Islamic conviction. This is clear without further proving. Even as he advocated the various aspects of land policies, justice system and others, he adhered to the Islamic value pattern and principles to extract the Islamically acceptable features of the Persian heritage. Furthermore, "as the Muslim administrative tradition in the East had adapted many institutions and procedures from pre-Islamic Iranian traditions, their influences can surely be traced in Nizam al-Mulk's thought; but that is a far cry from saying that he was serving the cause of Persian nationalism". Indeed, even in the Shari'ah matters and views on administration and statecraft and framework, it can safely be stated that he followed the opinions of Muslim fuqaha such as al-Mawardi. What he had done was to apply both the Islamically -acceptable aspects of the Persian heritage and the conceptual writings of 'ulama in the manner which he thought was best for the society contemporary to his time.
